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Places and history, Bogotà, images

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Feb 082013

Bogotà was the name of the Zipa confederation, the name of the site of the ancient Muisca civilization that had lived in the area. Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, starting in Santa Marta on the Pacific coast of the Colombia, commander of 500 men, though reduced to just seventy after conquering the Muisca, established de facto modern capital on August 6, 1538. During the colonial period, Bogota was the seat of the government of the “Audienza del Nuevo Reino de Granada” – created in 1550 – and then, starting in 1717, the home of the Viceroyalty of the Kingdom, the city in which the final step towards independence began in 1819.

Today, with more than 8 million inhabitants, Bogota is one of the South America’s most economically successful cities and its appearance is rapidly developing. At the same time, though, thanks to some of the more recent governments, the old section of the city has been restored and still retains its colonial appearance.

La Candelaria is the historic and cultural heart of Bogota, where you can find musical events, theater, book signings, etc.., a place, in these recent decades, where artists and writers have chosen to live, and not only Colombians, but also Germans, Americans, English, Spanish. In Calle 11 con Carrera 4th don’t miss the Luis Angel Arango Library, with over 2 million books to be browsed. “Chorro of Quevedo” is believed to have been the place where Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada started what is now the city (on August 6, 1538). Not far from where the cry of independence rose up centuries ago, we remember, among the many events, the Florero de Llorente and the patriot Policarpa Salavarrieta.

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The “barrio” Teusaquillo also dates back to pre-colonial times, the resting place of the Zipa and starting point for the development of the capital, a once elegant residential area. In addition to model English homes, you can see buildings in both colonial and Republican-style, which work well together and do not disrupt the view. The famous Church of Santa Ana, built between 1936-45, inspired by neo-Gothic and Art Nouveau, is visible, the interior a harmony of columns and arches.

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Typical features of South American life are alive and well, such as street vendors who offer everything from mango, arepa, from fruit juice to cellphone calls: the urban pulse is present in most of the territory, an opportunity to earn a living simply, a colorful note in an environment that still knows spontaneity.

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Bogotà also has artistas callejeros on the streets in the town squares for the corners. Above, three short performances in the areas of flea market of Usaquen – a Muisca settlement in the pre-Hispanic era – an old Bogotan neighborhood which every Sunday is filled with many different merchants offering from old objects, even from the 50s’ and 60s’, to various artisans, and collectors of old books, stamps and so on.

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Developed on the eastern cordillera of the Andes at an altitude of 2600 meters above sea level, Bogota is also modern, full of high-rise buildings, shopping areas, residential and pedestrian districts, large green parks such as the Parque Simon Bolivar and the José Celestino Mutis Botanical Garden. Bogota has seen the recent economic reversal that’s been sweeping South America – Venezuela, Chile – Europe – Spain, Germany -, as well as North America.

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Theaters, lecture houses, libraries, museums, art galleries, etc., have evolved impressively. The capital is full of places where you can take pleasant day trips, from the Library of Julio Mario Santodomingo, to the Casa de Silva Poetry, from the Teatro Nacional to Maloka, museum of science and technology, to the Botero Museum…

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Another way – though not the only – that you might notice the modernization of the city is the many cafes that offer free wifi – a way to attract customers, and offer them the ability to work or spend a pleasant afternoon.

The emergence of the Baroque style in the Americas

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Oct 222012

The word “Baroque” means an item that is extravagantly adorned. It is also derived from the Portugese word “barocco” meaning irregular pearl.
The Baroque period refers to an historical era when this extravagant approach was adopted by artists, musicians, writers and architects. The Baroque period began in Italy in around XVII century. It gradually spread across Europe and Latin America. Baroque architecture was prevalent in Latin America, particularly amongst the Spanish colonies, with many civic buildings and churches being built in the style. The buildings were often ornate with impressive features such as decorative columns and imposing staircases. There was also a Moorish influence and an emphasis on contrasting light and dark. The earliest example of this is a Jesuit shrine in Peru well-known for its golden altar.

Baroque music was especially popular in Latin America and still has a large following across the world today. Introduced by the Jesuit missionaries who acquired skills in Europe, they passed on their skills to the local people. As well as teaching them to play, the Jesuits also taught the locals to make instruments. Compared to Europe, Latin American Baroque music was less technical as the musicians although talented had less training and access to quality instruments.

Latin American painters working during the Baroque period tended to follow the European trends closely. Portraiture was popular with the wealthy, as in Europe at the time. Two important painters of the time were Cristóbal de Villalpando (1649 c.-1714) of Mexico and Miguel de Santiago (1620 c.- 1706) of Ecuador. Sculptors of the time, however, developed more individual styles. One particularly acclaimed sculptor of the time was the Brazilian Antonio Francisco Lisboa (1730-1814), commonly known as O Aleijadinho. He was best known for his painted wooden figures and his striking stone statues of the twelve prophets which stood outside the church of Bom Jesus in Congonhas do Campo.

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Here some article in Italian.

The American War of Independence (1775-1783)

english articles, XVIII sec. No Responses »

Jun 242012

The American War of Independence (1775-1783) which is sometimes referred to as the Revolutionary War is one of a number of wars that ended the British colonial interests in the Americas. This war was caused by many factors but chief among them that the Americans were not represented in the British legislature. The First Continental Congress consisted of the Thirteen British colonies which sent a petition to King George III of England due to their dissatisfaction with the non-representation of the Americans in the Legislative Assembly in the pretext that he would facilitate their representation.

To emphasize the importance of the empire, they organized boycotts in which they decided not to buy all British commodities but also affirming their allegience to the British crown. In a year’s time, the British sent more troops to Boston as a reaction to the seemingly rebellious nature of the congress. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress gathered and after debates, they resolved to form a Continental Army. The British perceived this as a rebellious move and consequently declared those party to the congress to be rebels and the provinces were declared to be in rebellion. This meant that they would therefore be charged with treason, an offence punishable by hanging. The revolutionaries had therefore the option of fighting to avoid this charge. This therefore set the stage for the American War of Independence in 1775.

The war between and her former colonist was also caused by the British restriction of the American trade and industrialization as America was her source of raw materials and also her consumer for her manufactured products. The war began at Massachusetts where its governor was attacked by an American militia which incidentally led to a full-blown conflict as the news of fighting spread fast and the war had now began. King George’s response by terming all those who took part in the congresses as traitors created the crisis.
The war was between those allied with the king, and those who were in the rebellion, the revolutionaries. The war would later become a global scenario as it attracted nations that were not initially party to the conflict. For instance, other global powers like France during the reign of King Louis XVI secretly provided supplies, ammunitions and arms to the revolutionaries from 1776 until she openly entered the war in 1778. Spain and the Dutch Republic who were French allies also entered the war to fight Britain. The war eventually turned global as the opponents clashed elsewhere in the globe including in West Indes as well as the threats of invasion spreading all over especially in Europe.
After losing Cornwallis at Yorktown, King George also lost control of the parliament. The push for a solution to the war became inevitable and in 1782, the House of Commons voted to bring end the conflict with the Americas. Its however valid to conclude that the entry of the foreigners in the war with any kind of support they brought along was a key determinant and it consequently led to the revolutionaries triumph.

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»»» Qua una slide in italiano.

Boston Tea Party, 1773

english articles, XVIII sec. No Responses »

Jun 142012

Boston Tea Party, December 16, 1773, was a political protest in Boston by Sons of Liberty (1) against the East India Company and British Government who continued to raise taxes more and more strong. They were against the duo because they used control, among other things, all the tea imported into the colonies. We remember that the British had drastically lowered the price of tea – duty-free -, making it competitive with the Duch. The protest started when officials of the British Government refused to give back 3 shiploads of tea which the British took it as a tax. The British colonist became angry with the idea of the British Government and group of colonists in the disguise of the Indians Mohawk boarded on the ship Dartmouth and destroyed the taxed tea by dumping it into Boston harbor. According to the British Parliament, the amount of tea that was wasted in the protest was valued around $. 16,000. Boston Tea Party became an iconic event in the history of the Americans. This protest is referred by other political protests also.

It was the culmination of armed movement against the Tea Act throughout British America, which was passed by the British Parliament in the year 1773. The Tea Act was objected by the colonist for many reasons, especially because they thought that it has violated the right of the colonists by not letting them to give tax to their own elected representative. In the growth of the American Revolution, Boston Tea Party played a very important role. The Parliament responded with Coercive Act, also known as Intolerable Acts (a series of laws passed by the British Parliament in the year 1774, after Boston Tea Party, 1773) in relation with the British Colonies in North America. The Coercive Acts, additionally, closed merchant shipping for the people of Boston and immune the British officials to criminal prosecution in America. The British colonist become intolerance with this Act and called for the first Continental Congress, September 5, 1774.

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-1. Members of a secret society that fought against British goverment.

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»»» Here in italian.

Lorenzo the Magnificent and some of his contemporaries

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May 262012

“How beautiful is youth
that runs away though
if you want to joy, let lure
about tomorrow we’re not sure” (1)

Antonio di Puccio Pucci, Lorenzo de' Medici e Francesco Sassetti con il figlio più giovane, Ghirlandaio, 1485.

This is what Lorenzo The Magnificent (1449-1492) sang in the middle of Fifteenth, the century which sees higher development of Humanism, the Renaissance, century which paves the way to the geographic discoveries, to new worlds and new trades, which preludes scientific discoveries. In his palaces the most varied artists joined together, poets, writers, literati, translators, prominent people of our culture. Villas in Cafaggiolo, in Fiesole, in Careggi, that same villa in Larga street in Firenze (today named via Cavour), saw Michelangelo, the Ghirlandaio, Guicciardini, Angelo Poliziano, Pico della Mirandola, discuss about philosophy, history, art, politics, religion, latin, greek.
Time, the Fifteenth century, during which Italy re-discover worth of Classics, Classics meant not as an end point, but as a start to a new way of seeing and living life, during which centrality of the human being is highlighted. In Milan, Ludovico Maria Sforza, the Moor (1452-1508), few years younger than the Magnificent, used to receive painters and artists such Bramante, Leonardo da Vinci, Baldassarre Castiglione e many more. And in 1482, to justify his government “funded a printed edition of his father, Francesco Sforza, biography, written in latin by Giovanni Simonetta, and strove to widespread it […].” (2) Culture and power went hand in hand in a time in which artists used to travel, move from a city to another, from a court to another, communicate through the new mobile Gutenbergs types, through paintings, frescos, sculpture, music.

Federico da Montefeltro, Piero delle Francesca, 1472.

Not only the big courts had their own entourage, but also the little Urbino duchy, with his good – so to speak – duke Federico da Montefeltro (1422-1482), concurred to spread, also but not only, arts and literature. The same Montefeltro who received Francesco Laurana, Piero della Francesca, Paolo Uccello, Giusto di Gand, Pedro Berruguete, Vespasiano da Bisticci, men, in short, that were examples to many, the same Montefeltro who conceived the beautiful ducal palace.
Another contemporary of Lorenzo was Pope Sixtus IV (1414 – 1484), professional theologian, not always on good terms with the Medici, by whom derives the name of Sistina Chapel, ready to support building, expanding the Vatican Apostolic Library, opening Sistina street, reorganization which involved also the staff of the Curia, recruiting more than necessary.
By force majeure, we must mention – we already repeated that history is a dependence-interdependence of events – Mohammed II, turkish sultan, (1432 – 1481) who, conquering Costantinoples in 1453, pushed various literati to emigrate from east to west, bringing with them classical greek texts, enticing to investigate and deepen subject left by the wayside or just reserved for insiders, in abbeys or monasteries.
East wasn’t less than West: “His majesty the Sultan had the habits to read philosophical texts translated into arabic from persian and greek, and to discuss treated subjects with his court scholars […]” (3) wrote the Cretan linguist Giorgio of Trebisonda (Trapezunzio).
All these people – the list could be much and much longer – were coeval with Lorenzo de’ Medici, who, by his patronage, marked a century, a century of which still, hundred years after, we talk about… and let us live.

Maometto II a Costantinopoli

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- 1. trans. eng. Scheila Morganti.
- 2. Lisa Jardine, Affari di genio, Carocci, Roma, 2001, pag. 251.
- 3. op. cit. pag. 201.

Renaissance diffusion in Europe, notes

english articles, XV sec., XVI sec. No Responses »

May 052012

Influence that the Renaissance had on various part of Europe wasn’t homogeneous, depending, among the many factors, on contacts that prominent people, coming from beyond the Alps, had with Italy and viceversa. Universities, courts, chancelleries was the principal, but not the only one, diffusion centers.
René of Anjou (1409-1480), for example, discovered humanistic studies during his coming to Italy and fell in love with them, so he remained in Italy from 1438 to 1441. The Anjou had got books by Plato, Livy, Boccaccio, Lorenzo Valla (1405 ca.-1457), a volume by the greek historian and geographer Strabo, received by the friend of him Jacopo Marcello as gift. Moreover he commissioned Francesco Laurana (1430-1502) various work, among which different medals, on the Antonio di Puccio Pisano, told the Pisanello (1395?-1455?), style. As well Francesco I of Valois (1494-1547) became interested in italian culture and in the humanistic studies that in this country took off, wishing literati, artists and scholars in his court, it will be enough to remember that Leonardo da Vinci lived his last years in Clos-Lucé castle, next to Amboise. The same Ottoman Sultan, Mehmet II the Conqueror (1432-1491), winner on Constantinople (1453), entered in touch with classic texts, Livy was one of his preferred. In his palace he called an italian scholar, Ciariaco of Ancona (1391–1452), as well as the painter Gentile Bellini (1429–1507), responsible to realize his portrait. Another king fascinated by Greeks and Latins was Mattia I Corvino (1443–1490), king of Hungary, who followed very closely italian studies and art developments. Married with Naple sovereign’s, Ferdinando I, daughter, Beatrice of Aragona (1457–1508), he was very soon influenced by the “italian way of life” and he surrounded himself with artists and literati, moreover he sent his agents all around Europe in searching of classic books, of which he was a famous collector. He had his books miniated by Florentine artists. He was in costant touch with Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499), he called Antonio Bonfini (1427–1505) to write an History of Hungary, and let’s not forget that the Verrocchio (1437–1488) and Filippino Lippi (1457–1504), among the others, stayed in his possessions.
As in courts, so also in chancelleries a certain diffusion of the Renaissance humanism took place. Catalan one, property of Peter the Cerimonious (1319–1387) had been organized taking the Florentine one as model. Henry IV of Castile (1425–1474) assumed the humanist Alfonso of Cartagena (1384–1456), son of a converted rabbi lived in Florence; Jànos Vitéz (1408–1472), Esztergom archbishop, educator of the King Mattia Corvino, fascinated by classic models, introduced them in royal hungarian chancellery. Small events which will gain importance on the long period.
It happened sometimes that foreign universities assumed italian scholars as readers, in Paris there were Filippo Beroaldo (1453–1503), Gregorio Tifernate (1414–1462) and so on. In the same time also local literati started to dissertate on classic culture, in Cracow we know about the presence of Gregory of Sanok (1406–1477) with a course based on Virgil, in Heidelberg Peter Luder (1443 ca.-1509) treated about the studia humanitatis. On the long way humanistic Renaissance would have had a wider an wider diffusion, more evident in certain cases, less in others, more influent in certain countries, less in others.

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»»»Here italian version

XV century Italian life scenes

english articles, XV sec. No Responses »

Dec 012011

In our present we have various tools available to immortalize our every-day life, we can use a camera as well as a video camera, we may record our or others’ voices, we are even able, while attending an occurrence, to detail it in real time and to broadcast it all around the world. Things, these, that in the period of time we are caring about, were very far to come. And so, there it was Painting, the marvelous art that allows us to get in visual touch with people and personalities, with occurrences and realities of a quite remote period of time, which however, in a certain way, still belongs to us. Better not to go into details, because it should discern when a painter drew from imagination, from when he was faithful to what he saw. The following are four scenes that give us a guidance on every-day life in a period of time going from: the end of the Middle Age to the italian Renaissance.

Paolo Uccello (1397-1475), Caccia notturna (Night hunting), painted around 1470. This painting introduces us one of the pastimes of the period: the hunting. So strong was the “passion” that they used to prey also in the night. Nobles, perhaps accompanied by some guests, together with servants and dogs, rode in search of a stag to carry home.

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Cassone Adimari, around 1450, belonging to Giovanni di ser Giovanni called “lo Scheggia” (1406-1486), indeed, considered its dimensions, supposed to be a headboard, represents a marriage between two individuals coming from wealthy families. To be noticed the sumptuousness of clothes, servants at work and a group of musicians, details letting us discover XV century Florence every-day life.

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Peasant at work on vineyards, agricultural practices representing every-day life of poorer, in a scenery where nature is the protagonist. A precious March month insight given us by Francesco del Cossa (1436 – 1478), fresco belonging to the Ciclo dei mesi, located in the beautiful Schifanoia Palace in Ferrara.

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Listen to the mass, a friar sermon, going to the church was an habit of good Catholics. In this image by Sano Pietro (1405 – 1481), we can notice men on right and women on left, a crowd of faithful listening to Saint Bernardino preaching. Indeed preaching was an efficacious way to transmit ideas, to communicate, to indoctrinate, it was, in short, our today radio.

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»»»here Italian article

Arts and crafts in XVII century Rome

english articles, XVII sec. No Responses »

Nov 172011

Various popes succeeded to the papal throne during the XVII century, by Leo XI to Urban VIII up to Innocent XI, popes that, in one way or another, determined history course. Their decisions influenced, though locally in Rome, even arts and crafts.
In the “Urbe” everything used to turn around corporations or “universities”, whose category determined its own sector with a system of laws often very specific and detailed. Nobody could practice his own craft without being registered in a class, “acquaroli”, druggists, fishermen, butchers, grocers and so on, had to be part of their own category and follow laws and dictates.
In Rome there were at least a hundred “universities”, each with its own statute, its own organization, its own patron saint and festivity, in short a whole system allowing the unfolding of the various activities. For example ones who belonged to “pizzicaroli” category, could sell eggs, meats, caviar, salmon, as well as brooms, candles, baskets, wire, up to dried fruits, vegetables, olives, onions, figs, etc. Their corporation was one of the richest and most powerful. While barbers, in addition to usual duties, practised also minor surgical operations, since, to be part of their “university”, they had to know the various veins of human body, “cavar sangue dalle dette vene, metter mignatte e ventose e far cauterj” (1).
The admission to university of the category usually occurred after a specific technical examination, necessary to test applicant’s skills. Librarians must have received eight years training, “vermicellari” – pasta manifacturers – at least two years training, druggist about ten years training.
Sometimes the continuation of crafts or arts was determined by the hereditary right and then one wasn’t supposed to wait for the twenty-fifth year of age to join the corporation.
Craftsmen and traders had to follow a certain order and had to respect the laws of their own category as well as edicts and proclamations on the agenda. Otherwise punishment was the pillory and, if it was grave, even arrest, besides the payment of a certain money amount.
In the “pollaroli” (ones who used to sell chicken and eggs for example) statute it’s written: “Che nissuno dell’arte possa vendere ova marce sotto la pena di dieci scudi d’oro per ciascuna volta”(2), it means “nobody dare to sell rotten eggs, under the punishment of ten gold-crowns per time”.
The building, that used to absorb architects, painters, masons and people usually coming from outside Rome, was tied-up with popes ambitions. For unskilled labors no specializations were required.
On holidays not all works stopped, because a minimum service must have been ensured: innkeepers had to feed their guests, farriers if necessary had to shoe horses, landlords had to sell wine, on condition that it wasn’t drunk on site, barbers had to take care of small wounds.
Working time was free: since sunrise to sunset, weather conditions allowing.

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1. Almo Paita, La vita quotidiana a Roma ai tempi di Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Rizzoli, Milano, 1998, pag. 257.
2. op. cit. pag 254.

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»»»Here italian article.

The Italian Renaissance in Europe

english articles, XV sec., XVI sec. No Responses »

Jun 252011

The Italian Renaissance had an impact on almost all of Europe. Culture, art, fashion, architecture, dance, horseback riding, music, writing, modus vivendi, and so on, were the focus of attention not only of the courts across the Alps, but also the emerging middle class and the people who came in contact with the ideas thanks also to the spread of printing with Gutenberg’s movable type. Italy was considered by some as a way of life: William Thomas, Welsh, stated in 1549 that “the nation Italy seems incomparably more civilized than all the others. Similarly Beccadelli recommended a friend of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik) to send him «for refinement in Italy»” (1). So the Italian customs were followed in England, towards the end of the reign of Elizabeth I, in France, remember Catherine de’ Medici on the throne, in Poland, Germany, Hungary, at the time of Matthias Corvinus, etc. etc. Technical terms of architecture, music, military entered common usage of other languages, as well as, for example, the use of the fork that came from Italy, which spread slowly in Europe, or as a way to cut the meat – remember the figure of the carving – or behave in everyday life. The book by Baldassare Castiglione, Il Cortigiano (The Courtier), was soon translated into many countries. Followed were even beautiful Renaissance gardens, the Boboli in Florence, those of Este in Tivoli, guides that served as inspiration elsewhere.
Yet, next to the attraction there is always a certain amount of waste and, with the passage of time, formed a band of italofobias, people who saw cultural development with a critical eye, and not only the “bel paese”. The Swedish humanist Olaus Magnus was used to stress the “softness” of the southern peoples; known in England was called “English Italian devil incarnate“; as well as France was said to “cover up like an Italian“; Henri Estienne, printer Calvinist was contrary to “Italianization of the French language“, not to forget that you used to say “effeminate like an Italian“. Even for some foreigners, Italy was a country of poisons, or, according to the German humanist Konrad Celtis, “Nos italicus luxus corrupti”, lust Italy there is corrupting.
In short, italophile and italofobias seemed, and were in fact, two sides of the same coin, the coin of that renaissance, launched in Italy, cross, affecting a large part of European lands.

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1. in Peter Burke, Il Rinascimento europeo, centri e periferie, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 1999, pag. 237.

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»»»here Italian article.

On fashion and Etiquette in the Italian Renaissance

english articles, XVI sec. No Responses »

Dec 252010

It is well known that in the Renaissance there was a passage of man from belonging to a determined group, at one defined team, to getting knowledge of his own individuality and unusual strength. By improving social life therefore, every person tried to give the best of himself, of his knowledge, to participate in common life not like a subjugated person anymore, on the contrary free to show his own potentialities.
Fashion reflects this feature, that fashion the painters of that era represented, reproducing the elegance of the customs and furnishings, perhaps exaggerating sometimes. We know that in Florence and Venice, there were, for example, precise laws that controlled the way of dressing as regarding men as women, not using very luxurious clothes, what was not possible in Naples. Just in the famous Tuscan town, everyone dressed oneself up, according to his own taste, showing off his own individuality, pointing out to the ornaments and embellishments, in the limits imposed by the codes.
We have to remember that women, in order to follow a certain way of life, had to have a fair complexion, blonde hair if possible and they had to be always elegant. One tells that, in order to make hair colour clear, they believed that the sun could be useful, getting particular qualities, so that these ladies spent whole days in the sun, not forgetting about so many applications and ointments that were used to preserve their beauty, specific products for their faces, eyelids, teeth and so on. They used talc water for their bodies, lavender for their hands, so that the use of perfumes, prerogative not only of fair sex, but also of men and animals. Yes, of animals, as horses and she mules that had to be ridden during the celebrations, very often they were rubbed with fragrant preparations, with some objects that they carried. Just Pietro Aretino wrote to Cosimo I de’ Medici to thank him for that one hundred new and perfumed shields that the other day you gave me.
And the least well-to-do girls followed, in their own way and according to their economic possibilities, the suggestions of richest people.
Italians took the lead in banquets, our Renaissance courts as well, both for elegance and etiquette.
And here we are at the Etiquette, the famous book written by Giovanni Della Casa (1503-1556), which got so much success in Europe, in which the good rules were described for a correct showing off and living together. Starting from cleaning rules, in the real hygienic sense of the word, till the suggestions to avoid inconvenient ways to introduce oneself in public; from taking a seat at table, to the language to be used during a conversation; from avoiding certain vices, to the tone of ideal voice. Speaking of determine rules of behaviour, he wrote:

It is not good to scratch oneself sitting at table, and man should avoid spitting, if he has to do it, it must be in a convenient way. […] It is not good to rub one’s teeth with the tablecloth or with the finger, these are bad usages; neither to rinse one’s mouth and spit the wine is good; neither on leaving the table to take the toothpick away, or on one’s ear like the barbers, it is not a good custom. […] And who take the toothpick tied on one’s neck, they make a mistake because besides the fact that this is a very strange thing, this shows that man wearing it, he is a very greedy person; and I don’t know why these person don’t take a spoon tied on their necks.

Between the seriousness and the amusing, Della Casa, not having the intention to write an essay on the moral, he suggested to the reader how to be elegant, refined and gentlemanly at the same time, all without appearing as forced.
To conclude this brief dissertation, it seems that Italy had reached, during the Renaissance, a level of refinement, elegance and perfection that no other European country had in those years, quality that will be the direction in the following centuries.

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Italian version here.